ANTA01 Final Exam prep Textbook Notes UTSC

Anthropology Final Exam Study Notes

ANTA01 - Introduction to Anthro

UTSC

R song


Chapter 9 Textbook Notes
To New Lands
- First fossils of Homo species= Homo erectus, widely debated - Splitters making it into two species, Erectus and Ergaster
- Dubois= discoverer of Homo Erectus, Java, 1891, at this point most people thought that humans first evolved in Asia at this time, hence the reason for looking there, also he was serving in the military there. Found skullcap and diseased femur, thought it was missing link. Named it Pithecanthropus Erectus aka Java Man
( upright ape man). After his work researches then accredit it to Homo Erectus. Similar to Erectus found in Africa and other Asian specimens, average brain size is larger than other earlier fossils. 1000 ml brain size.
- Most famous =Zhoukoudian cave, Beijing China. Occupied from 460 000 ya- 230 000 ya. 6 complete skulls, 12 cranial and mandible fragments, 100+ teeth, postcranial pieces, stone tools, animal bones (horse and hyena). Most of the remains= remains from hyenas meals. Peking Man= missing, casts made though.
- ( Working Man), tools found in association. Oldest find= East Turkana,
, female. Typical Erectus crania = heavy brow ridges, prognathous face,
sloping forward, elongated profile, saggital keel, sharply angled occipital bone, receding chin, pronounced torus, post orbital constriction. C.c= 850 ml. Average cc= 980. Average early Homo= 680. Differs from Erectus = thinner, higher in profile, smaller facial bones. Another found there = male at 1.57 mya. Definitions=
= sloping of the sides of the skull toward the top as viewed from the front, l= The rear portion of the skull, Torus= A bony ridge at the back of the skull where neck muscles attatch, sagitaal crest= ridge of bone for the attachment of chewing muscles.
- = Erectus/ Ergaster= distinct from early homo , skull retains primitive features = essentially modern.
-Turkana Boy=West Turkana= Nearly whole skeleton, 1.6 mya, shape of pelvis= male, 5 1⁄2 feet tall, 150 lbs, would have been 6 feet had he lived to adulthood. 12 years of age when he died ( as told from the dental eruption and lack of any epiphyseal union.)
throughout Africa and they remained there for about a million years ( except OH9). Did not stay there, can be seen in China and South east asia from at least 1 mya ago, possibly 1.8 mya. Spread due to reproductive success,
big brains allowed them to exploit the savannas, better more varied tools, ability to learn about environment, reason out problems in their habitat., more complex social

Ergaster

1.78 mya

Sagitaal keel

Occipita

From the Neck up

. Neck down

- Homo erectus

spread

organization= rapid increase in population size. Population size= stress on resources and social harmony, which caused fission. Less competition for food, water, shelter, and space. Water= scarce in the savannahs b/c theyre seasonal= dry at months end. Need shelter ( bodies same as ours)= fight with animals for forms of shelter, also had to ward of herds.
- Fission led to Homo erectus wandering into the old world and ending up in Beijing, Java, and europe= new climates and contact with the Pleistocene= ice age. For unknown reasons the worlds climate dropped from 1.6 mya- 10 000 ya = glacial advances and retreats. May have been caused by a decrease in heat generated by the sun, interplanetary dust blocking out the suns radiation, increase in volcanic activity, and deviation in earth’s orbit.
- Pliocene= initial drop in worldwide temperature 5 mya- 1.6 mya. Pleistocene was actually a complex time in terms of temperature= lengthy cold spells, seperated by phases with temperatures as warm as or warmer than today’s climate. Ice fields formed, internal pressures forced the ice to move in frozen rivers and the formation of glaciers occurred (aka great ice sheets). Non- glacial parts of the world (tropic/ subtropics) also underwent climate change.
- = the periods during which ice- covers expanded. =when glaciers temporarily receded and the temp. warms up.
Stadials= short period of rapid glacial advance and extreme cold. Interstadials= short period of glacial retreat during a long period of racial advance.
- Holocene= The modern epoch that began 10 000 ya with the retreat of glacial ice, and worldwide warming. ( Most scientists believe that the epoch is merely and interglacial remission)
-Glaciers leave traces of their presence in the form of geological deposits, diagnostic patterns of erosion, however they are still difficult to study due to the fact that subsequent movement of ice erases evidence of previous glacial expansion. We cannot accurately examine ancient temp. from seawater, but we can examine the indirect effect of temp. variations and the attendant expansion and melt off of ice in the ratio of two isotopes of oxygen O16 and O18.
= 1.6-780 000 ya= when the earth’s magnetic field shifted.
= 780 000 ya- 200 000 ya. Upper Pleistocene= 200 000 ya- 10
000 ya. Homo erectus was able to establish themselves and migrate during this time, we find their remains in some of the far corners of the old world, without a doubt they lived in between however, there remains have yet to be found there.
The Evolution and Behaviour of Homo Erectus
- The remains of erectus have been redated more precisely with potassium argon with Sangiran at 1.6 mya, and modjokerto at 1.8 mya, these dates are

Glacial/ Glacial periods

Interglacials

Lower Pleistocene

Middle Pleistocene

= to the earliest remains found in africa. This means that Erectus could have originated outside of africa. However, this is not likely because the majority of the remains are found in Africa. Two possible explanations is that 1)Erectus/Ergaster first evolved in Africa earlier than earlier than fossils obtained and the spread. 2) Or there expansion began very shortly after they evolved.

• -  D2700 (specimen)= Dmanisi, 1.75 mya smaller, and more primitive than the others, provisionally assigned to Homo Erectus ( some features resemble early Homo, cc of 600)= humans may have ventured out of Africa and at an earlier evolved stage than previously assumed.
  
• -  There is evidence of stone tools found at 1.36 mya in northern China= evidence for an earlier migration out of Africa.
  
• -  Ngandong= evidence of Homo erectus in africa that may be younger than 100 ya, ( possible 27 000- 53 000 ya) this means that Erectus was still around well after Homo sapiens has been evolved.
  
• -  Erectus and Europe= besides the Ceprano find, the only proof that Erectus existed in europe is the fact that artifacts found there match Erectus artifacts from other locations. )= France, tools and remains dated at 800 000 ya. )= France, it has been proposed that erectus built shelters and established a village at around 400 000 ya. Torralba and Amrona ( site)= Spain, 400 000 ya, remains of large mammals like elephants as well as stone tools which suggest hunting or scavenging
  ( more likely). Based on these facts it is assumed that Erectus lived there but was not widespread OR possibly these artifacts belong to other species.
  
• -  The brain size of Homo Erectus is larger to control a larger body= it falls in line with what would have been expected based on the brain-size-to-body- size ratio of early Homo. The inside surfaces of skulls often bear evidence of the external appearance of the brains they housed.
  
• -  Endocast= A natural (fine sediments filled in the skull as the brain sediments, then fosillized) or human-made cast of the inside of the skull ( liquid latex), produces a model of at least the major features of the exterior surface.
  
• -  The brains of Homo erectus= asymmetrical. Endocasts made from the Sangiran, Ndangong, and the african skulls ( KNM-ER 3733, and 3883 and OH 9) they all show asymmetry= Homo erectus possessed a level of hemispheric speicialization similar to that of modern humans, at 1.7 mya Homo erectus possessed linguistic skills and the ability to manipulate symbols, and hand eye coordination. Cerebral asymmetry is also present in o.w monkeys and chimps. The greater intellect allowed for elaboration of culture and innovations in behaviour.
  

Soheliac ( site

Terra Amata on the riviera (site

Stone tools

• -  Simple chopping tools created by the removal of a relatively small number of flakes from a stone cobble are present at many H erectus sites. However, the middle hominids developed a new stone industry which was more sophisticated. tool industry of Homo erectus- hand axes, cleavers, and flake tools, named after a site in france where it was first identified ( St. Acheul), even though the tradition is actually older in africa. Involves elaboration on the removal of a few flakes; resulting in a hand axe= a bifacial symmetrical, all- purpose tool, (piercing animal flesh, butchering, scraping hides, cutting woods and digging roots)bifacial= a stone tool that has been worked on both sides.
  
• -  The manufacture of a hand axe occurs in 3 stages 1) a rough form or “blank” was produced from a nodule of stone by stricking the nodule directly with a stone hammer. 2) the rough blank was thinned and shaped by percussion with a softer tool ( antler). 3) tool is finished with a soft hammer, straightening the edge of the axe and producing the symmetrical shape. Evolved from Oldowan tool Industry. The hand axe shows more forethought, greater skill, and more utility in design and continued through the middle pleistocene lasting into the upper pleistocene. It spread to europe after its invention in africa. Not seen in most asian sites.
  
• -  The Movius Line= a geographic break between the manufacture of the hand anxes and that of simple stone chopping tools. Hand axes appear to the west of this line, located in eastern india, but often not east of it. Categorized east asia as the marginal region ( not as technologically advanced. This view is not supported by modern anthropologists= theyre may be less tools there due to the fact of a lack of product. Geoffrey Pope suggested that bamboo replaced stone east of the Movius line.
  
• -  = tools similar to Acheulian tools found east of the movius line 800 , not found west of the movius line. The reason why Acheulian tools
  are not found on the east side of the movius line may be due to the fact that
  . This leads some anthropologists to further believe that Erectus should be divided into two, and that Erectus should be specific to Asia, and Ergaster to Africa. If so this means that both hominid species were capable of making these advanced tools.
  The Quest for Fire
  

- Fire= important, provided heat, and protection from predatory animals, use for cooking made meat more digestible ( thus more nutritious), extended the day ( John Pieffer). At 1.6 mya Homo erectus was able to produce and control fire= seen at the Koobi Fora phytoliths were recovered from there= palm

pleistocene

Acheulian

. Began

in Africa about 1.4 mya

Bose Basin

000 ya

Erectus moved out of Africa before the Acheulian tool industry was developed

there

wood. Other proof of fire= Africa at 1.5 mya, 750 000 ya at the french cave of L’escale, 500 000 ya at Zhoukoudian in china ( most speculative).

Hunters or Scavengers?
-

Torralba, Ambrona (spain), Olorgesailie( kenya), and Olduvai BKII (Tanzania) =

400 000 ya show evidence that groups of hominids met up at least once a year

and socialized= earliest evidence of hunting

- Torralba and Ambrona= 2 hills flanking a major pass on the Guadarrama Mountains of spain ( natural migration route for people and animals. Elephants, horses, deer, wild cattle, rhinoceroses, have been excavated, possibly representing 10 different cooperative H erectus hunts= stampeded into swamps, were they would become mired and then be killed. Some people suggest that the animals were stampeded into the wetlands by the use of fire, Questionable= active animals but no tools found, most of the specimens were so badly damaged that cut marks couldn’t even be detected, where they could they could be attributed to soil ebrasion and root growth. On those that werent damaged a minimal amount of cuts could be seen even these did not show patterns of systematic butchering. CANNOT BE USED AS A HYPOTHESIS FOR BIG GAME HUNTING.
were thought to have been killed in the same way by Homo Erectus. = cooperative hunt of baboons, 700 000- 900 000 ya, rocks thrown at
them, and clubbed to death. Next the animals would have been butchered and marrow would have been extracted from their bones. = knowledge, cooperation, and coordination, understanding of animal behaviour: migration schedules and patterns, herding behaviour, and reactions to threat. The level of cooperation and coordination = the ability to communicate, divide labor, delegate responsibilities, and distribute the found food. Hominids probably hunted, not big game and not habitually. Kalambo Falls site= wild plant foods, used fire, built shelters.
The Question of Language
-Asymmetry is found in apes, but not to the extent it’s found in modern humans because the halves of our brains perform different function, language and symbol =
. Spatial reasoning ( hand-eye coordination)= right hemisphere. = the ability to communicate through symbolic language.
= is suggested by a reconstruction of the vocal apparatus based on the anatomy of the cranial base. The vocal apparatus = soft, however it is connected to bone, the shape of the bone is correlated with the shape of the pharynx, larynx, and other features. Positioned lower in the throat allowing for greater range and speed of sound production. This does not necessarily mean that they DID produce sound, but given all of the complexities of their life they WOULD have things to talk about.

.

- BKII cattle

Olorgasalie

left hemisphere

Asymmetry in erectus

Further evidence

- Australopithecines did not have these abilities ( vocal apparatus high up in the throat like that of the apes)
- Erectus even as a separate species from Ergaster is very impressive= prospered for 2 mya in africa, by 1.8 mya had spread to java, by 500 000 ya they had reached northern China and Europe, they lasted as a prominent group until 250 000 ya, and may have persisted in Java until 100 000 ya. Their adaptations= learning, technology, and cultural transmission of information allowed them to exploit different environments.
- There is a lot of debate over how much Erectus changed over their tenure on the earth = small encephalization ( 180 ml), refinement of the hand- axe, small and slow changes= stability, which proves to be advantageous in evolution.
- at 800 000 ya there was a sudden surge in brain size to an average= of homo sapiens.
Big Brains, Archaic Skulls

-
-
-

all had brain sizes within modern , however they have other features; especially of the cranium
which retain primitive features= referred to as archaic.
Homo Antecessor = advanced guard or explorer. Gran Dolina cave in Atapuerca hills in Northern spain (site)= 80+ fragments including many parts of the skeleton, tools, more than 780 000 ya (oldest well- accepted fossil humans found in Europe).
= The most striking fossil is the partial face of an 11 year old boy= , projecting nose region, sharp lower margin, hollowed cheekbones ( canine fossae), dentition. CC= 1000 ml +. Other fossils at this site show primitive features= prominent brow ridges, premolars with multiple roots ( modern human premolars have a single root). This mix of primitive and modern aspects is what led investigators to assign the species name, and also to suggest that this species is the of modern humans, heidelbergensis and neanderthalensis. to this is that the features on the boys face are juvenile, and would have changed in adulthood. Others say that other fragmentary facial bones also show modern traits, and that later fossils from a near by site ( Sima de los Huesos) do not.
= 200 bones found at the site date my to 1 mya ( cores and simple cutting flakes) , later
tools ( knife) are found in the same strata none are as complex as the Acheulian tool industry.
= ate bison and deer bones, found stone tool cut marks on bones, indicate as well cut marks on human bones= cannabalism.

human range

Gran dolina boy

fully modern

direct ancestor

Objection

-
-

Heidelbergensis, Antecessor, Neanderthalis

Gran dolina site

pre- had axe tools

resemble

more complex

Gran dolina

hunting

• -  Orce ( possible site)= southeaster Spain, may be older than Gran Dolina- 900 000 ya +, has simple stone tools and alleged hominid bones ( may be horse bones, dates still contested, MORE INFO NEEDED)
  
• -  Homo heidelbergensis= widespread in range, existed for 275 000 ya ( longer if include antecessor), named for mandible found in Mauer near Heildelberg, Germany = 1300 ml (30% increase from that of erectus, different as well,
  = steeper foreheads= important because the frontal = most important for speech, attention, social behaviour, planning, and
  reasoning. Bones compared to H erectus= thinner, less reduced, less prognathous, brow ridges less pronounced, less postorbital constriction {narrowing of the skull behind the eyes}).
  
• -  Little can be said about lifestyle of this species. We do however know from Boxgrove ( site)= hand axes used at 500 000 ya , later at 200 000 ya the development of a new type of stone tools = the prepared core
  ( Striking uniform flakes from prepared core for cutting, scraping or
  

lobe

. CC

emphasis on forebrain

piercing). in Africa then in Europe.
400 000 ya, , 6 ft long, used to throw and large animals.
- Sima de los Huesos ( site)= pit of bones, Spain, shaft inside a cave, 300 000 ya. Contains animal and human bones. Investigators think that the bodies would be thrown in the pit after death, NOT as part as a formal funeral but for simple disposal. Many of the bones show . Some bones found here show to be .
The Neandertals

= Levallois

, used

First seen

wooden spear tools

Schroningen ( site

)= germany,

-

Homo Neanderthalensis = famous group of humans from europe and the Near East. Named after the first human fossil found ( recognized as a human fossil), it was a skullcap from the Neander Valley in Germany. Intellectual and cultural achievements, similar to modern humans physically, but different in many ways. They have more pronounced versions of the cranial features of Homo Heidelbergensis, cc= 1300 ml- 1740 ml, sloped forheads, back of skull = broad, sides bulgin, low brow ridges= large, smaller than erectus, filled with air spaces ( frontal sinus) unlike solid ridge of erectus, brow ridge= rounded in each eye NOT forming one straight line ( as seen in earlier archaics. Face= large and prognathous, broad nasal openings, wide- set eyes, receding chin.
Bones of neanderthals = more robust, heavier stockier muscular powerful people, even seen in children ( inheritance), relatively short ( males = 5.6, females = 5.3), relatively short legs and lower arms= strenuous lifestyle and cold climates ( shorter, heavier bodies with short limbs conserve heat. Evidence= neandertals from warmer southwest asia are longer in limbs than those of europe. Also, they had nasal projections which would have helped

childhood malnourishment

ancestral to the Neandertals

-

warm and moisten the cold, dry air of Europe, large sinus cavity= same function. Larynx = higher in the throat than in modern human would have prevented them from gulping in the cold ( dry air through the mouth).

• -  Fossils date from 225 000 ya-28 000 ya, responsivle for a number of
  = elaboration on Lavallois tool making
  technique= . Mousterian technique= named after the site of Le moustier in france, involved careful retouching of flakes taken off cores, these cores were sharpened and shaped by precise additional flaking on one side or on both to make specialized tools ( no less than 63 tool types).
  
• -  Microscopic wear pattern analysis of mousterian tools at site, located in Israel) have allowed anthropologists to infer several of the tools: animal butchering, woodworking, bone and antler carving, and working of animal hides. Also wear patterns like those produced by friction of a wooden shaft against a stone spear point. Neandertals = first to haft a stone point. Haft = to attach a wooden handle or shaft to a stone of bone point.
  
• -  Still debated whether the Neandertals were . However, without doubt they were that abounded during the Pleistocene: reindeer, deer, ibex ( wild goats), aurochs ( wild oxen), horses, wooly rhinoceroses, bison, bear, and elk (bones of these creatures= found with Neandertal remains.
  

important cultural achievements

Mousterian technique

Kebara cave (

big game hunters or scavengers

uses

dependent on the animals

- First and most famous evidence of
Homo Neanderthalensis. Some were
definitely intentional, some even have signs of s: stone tools, animal

intentional human burials

is attributed to , however 36 are

of natural causes

offering

bones, possibly flowers.
Afterlife? Or was this simply done for disposal purposes like in Sima de los Huesos? Were animal bones present in the graves as offerings, or did scavengers and predators drag them there along with Neanderthal bones
( burial by natural processes). Even the possibility of flowers as offerings is not sure, even though pollen has been found at Shandihar grave( site in Iraq); may have been brought in by burrowing rodents, carried in by water, or blown in by wind.

• -  Bear cults may have occurred in Europe= cave bear 12 ft tall when standing ( now extinct). Caves in Switzerland and France were believed to house bear skulls house in special stone chests or in niches of the cave walls. Reanalysis removes purposeful placement, and invites the idea that the placement of skulls was the result of natural proccesses( cave-ins), also, none of the bear bones show any sign of cut marks.
  
• -  Hypothesized whether or not neanderthals were among the first Indicated by a skull found belonging to the
  ( specimen); was suffering from severe
  

the elderly, ill and injured.

Debate about intentional burial

= Did they believe in

to care for

Old

man of La Chappelle-aux- saints

-
-
-

arthritis, was aged, and loss most of his teeth. The fact that he lived to such an old age indicates he was cared for. OPPOSITION= teeth fell out after death, arthritis not SO bad, and he was not so old, died around 40. As most Neanderthals never reached old age, they most likely did not have to care for the old. Other evidence= Man from Shandihar Irag ( site), blind , injuries, missing one arm, lived like this for quite some time ( obviously needed help from others to live).
Neanderthals= not completely peaceful, evidence of
). Human bones show stone tool cut marks ( on 6 specimens) at the SAME anatomical
locations as cut marks on wild goats and deer at these sites. Some bones were smashed= access to bone marrow. DEBATE= whether this occurred for ritualistic reasons ( ingesting part of, or ashes, of a group member at a funeral ceremony) or gustatory ( eating flesh as food).
= High larynx= not capable of making vowel sounds = at )= a hyboid bone ( a horshoe shaped
bone in the throat; appears fully modern) would have allowed them to make all the sounds we make, like Erectus they had plenty of things to talk about.
Archaic members of Genus Homo= successful in adapting to different environments, were intelligent, differed from modern humans physically.

Guercy ( site in France) and at Kaprina and Vindiji ( sites in Croatia

Linguistic of Neanderthals

Modern Humans
- 300 000 ya fossils which appear to modern appear in Africa Southeast Asia Europe East Asia Australia Pacific Islands North and South America.

-

Some of these fossils were transitional= mix of archaic and modern
features( Ileret, Florisbad, Omo, Ngalova and Jebel Irhoud; all in Africa; all the earliest).Ones not found in a transitional stage=(Africa) (Ethiopia) Omo I Cranium ( 195 000 ya= Earliest non transitional) herto, Klasies River Mouth/ Langebaan Lagoon( footprints)/ Border Cave, (Israel) Quasef/ Skhul, (Germany) Stetten, ( France)Cro- Magnon/ Abri Pataud, (China) Zhoukodian, Australia ( Lake Mungo) and finally in the US ( Midland, Texas).
I=oldest definite record of modern homo sapiens, at 195 000 ya =1450 ml, mix of primitive and modern tools. Skulls show
= ritual purposes?

Ethiopia ,Omo

. OPPOSITION

• -  Langebaan Lagoon ( site in South Africa), small human footprint (female) at 117 000 ya
  
• -  Fully modern humans from 195 000- 165 000 ya, transitional forms from 300 000 ya
  

cannibalism at Moula-

Kebara( site

. Large cc

postmortem manipulation

- As we move further away from Africa and Southwest asia, the dates for early appearance of Homo sapiens becomes more recent= proof that we originated in Africa.
Homo Habilis Homo RudolfensisHomo Erectus Homo Antecessor Homo Heidelbergensis Homo Neanderthalensis Homo Sapiens
Contemporary Issue, Who are the hobbits from Indonesia?
- On the island of Flores in Indonesia a human skeleton dated at 13 000 ya was found, Adult female, was about 3 ft 5 inches, cc= 380 ml ( stature and cranial capacity of Australopithecus afarensis) Yet her physical features resembled Homo erectus, she was named Homo Floreiensis/ Hobbit. Amazing find; as far as we know, no other hominid species existed in the world other than Homo sapiens for at least 27 000 ya. She was find where evidence of fire, as well as Hunting, and cooking, did not hunt small game ( coordination and cooperation. Possibly Australopithecine= some say that her limbs resembled australopithecine, however these cultural aspects are no coherent with that of australopithecine, and no australopithecines were found outside of Africa. Possibly= an individual in a group of pygmy humans, possibly a dwarf, but usually these people have brains at a normal size and just small bodies, this was not the case here ( 1/3 modern human MINIMUM), modern brain could develop in small package ( putting SD card into Mp3?). BEST POSSIBILITY= Homo erectus who dwarfed; mammals away from predatorial animals develop smaller craniums. Questions? Is this specimen a characteristic of a whole population? ( Have found seven possible others). Is this population a separate species? Unless if floriensis is a depiction of ONE individual with abnormalities, our genus Homo is a lot more variable then we imagined.
CHAPTER 10 TEXTBOOK NOTES
Major Models in an Ongoing Debate

• -  Two major models for the origin of our species 1) The single species model= The Mutltiregional Evolution model ( MRE)- They hypothesis that Homo sapiens is about 2 million years old and that modern human traits evolved in geographically diverse locations and then spread through the species, incorporates the idea of gene flow.
  
• -  Models that recognize Homo Sapiens as only the most recent of multiple species of Homo are called by a number of names, most commonly used = Out-of- Africa model
  
• -  2)Recent African Origin Model ( ROA)= the hypothesis that homo sapiens evolved recently as a separate species in Africa and then spread to replace more archaic populations
  

- The Mostly-out-of- Africa model= The hypothesis that Homo sapiens is about 2 million years old as a species but that most of the genetic variation and phenotypic features of modern humans have an African origin.
The Recent African Origin Model ( RAO)

• -  Major proponents= Christopher Stringer (Natural History Museum in London), Ian Tattersall ( Natural History Museum in New York)
  
• -  Modern homo sapiens = separate species branched from preexisting archaic Homo species in Africa around 200 000 ya- 150 000 ya. This new species spread over the Old world, replacing archaic populations they came in contact with ( because they were better adapted) sometimes called the replacement model.
  
• -  If this model is correct we must be able to find distinctions between are modern species and premodern ( archaic) humans that clearly distinguish us as a separate species; traits that all homo sapiens share that are not found in premoderns, and traits found in premoderns that are lacking in modern humans = anatomical modernity. If we can find these traits then we can deduce that fossil transitional between premodern and modern should occur only in the single region in which moderns evolved. Elsewhere there should be evidence of anatomical premoderns as well as monders coexisting in the same area ( after the moderns spread out from their initial source area)
  The Multiregional Evolution Model ( MRE)
  

• -  Milford Wolpoff and Rachel Caspari ( University of Michigan). More complicated then RAO model= homo sapiens arose in africa, pushes back the date of homo sapiens to 2 mya, members of this new species ( Homo erectus) spread throughout the old world; evolving genetic and phenotypic differences in response to the wide variety of environments, as well as the complex population movements, isolations, mergings, and fissionings that took place. Degree of species mobility resulted in gene flow to maintain a single species ( no population was isolated long enough or to a great enough degree for speciation to occur). Ideas and technologies spread and were exhanged.
  
• -  Physical traits of modern humans appeared everywhere but may have been mainfested in different waiys in different populations and in different environments creating a variable species, but ONE species ( as can be seen today).
  
• -  This does NOT mean that every population within this long time frame survived to contribute to genes within modern humans. This DOES mean that Homo sapiens is not a separate species, they did not arise in the recent past,
  

and they did not spread become dominant by replacing other species of homo.

• -  If the MRE model is correct it means that we should find no clear evidence that homo sapiens is a separate species from any premodern groups, there should be NO biologically meaningful defintion of modernity; however populations with transitional traits should be found in many places. There should be evidence of interbreeding where species coexisted. There should be traits that only occur in certain geographical regions present in both modern and premodern hominids.
  
• -  Conclusion of this model = premodern humans are memebrs of our species. The rules of taxonomy= the earliest name used for any of them must be applied to them all. Thus all six should be called Homo sapiens ( name first used by Linnaeus in 1758)
  Key Requirements of Each Model
  

• -  RAO 1) requires definition of anatomical modernity distinguishing modern and premodern hominds. 2) requires genetic distinctions that indicates modern humans are a separate species.3) requires that transitional forms appear only in the single region in which modern humans evolved.
  
• -  MRE 1) requires that there be no biologically meaningful definition of modernity 2)requires that populations with transitional sets of traits be found in many locations 3) Requires a regional community of traits.
  The Evidence
  

- Evidence for past 2 mya = limited; fossils exist but they are fragmentary and are scattered against time and space. Same can be said for ancestors cultural activities. Genetic data are available but only from FULLY modern populations alive today ( or recently). Evolutionary theory-= still debated, generally and specifically for one species. General summary of available evidence and interpretations by BOTH MRE and RAO ( camps)
The Fossil Record

• −  In the the textbook the RAO model has been used thus far; in contrast Wolpoff and Caspari say that the variation seen within the fossil record of Homo does NOT warrant division into separate species.
  
• −  Ex: the notion that just about every H erectus that differs from australopithecines characterizes Homo sapiens, no features are no features unique to erectus. ( In other words, they are the same species. ) They also say that not all modern trains arised in one location but in many, and spreads occur via gene flow, causing different expressions in different geographical
  

locations: Transitional from found in many areas= required by MRE model.

• −  Modernity, has not been defined clearly, in some cases the traits said to be
  specific to homo sapiens, is NOT seen in present OR recent humans. Ex: Neanderthals large continuous brow ridge sparates them from modern humans, however, in australia, humans still possess these continuous brow ridges. This is why those pushing for MRE say that traits should be distinguished based on region. At the same time, using Neanderthals to justify ones point is not exactly throurough due to the fact that they are MORE different from other moderns in ways other than archaics, they were a small population isolated by distance and ecology; even if most of their populations ( thus phenotypes) became extinct that does not mean that they are NOT members of our species, nor does it negate the MRE model. Modernity is relative ( eye of the beholder).
  
• −  Wolpoff and colleagues see a contuinuity of traits in CERTAIN areas; Asia, Australia and also between Neanderthal and MODERN populations in Europe. They compared features of the skulls of both modern and archaic specimens in these regions and found several similarities and differences that pointed to a mixed ancestry. EVIDENCE= in portugal a young boy living at 24 500 ya was found to have a protruding chin and proportionately small teeth; modern characteristics. However, his postcranial bones are robust and distplay short lower arms and legs ; characteristics of Neanderthals. He is believed to be a hybrid ( making these two groups the same species= gene flow). OPPOSITION= RAO propnents reject the claim and say that the child was simply a chunky anatomically modern human. The fossil could support either idea. RAO proponents cannot agree on the exact number of premodern species, they only say that homo sapiens is a separate recent species. PROBLEMS= fossils usually incomplete, not representative of the whole population, age is questionable, morphological features unknown for heritabilty, it is hard to translate physical features into species classification. \
  The Cultural Evidence
  

• −  (AFRICA)If some premodern populations of Homo evolved as separate species into modern Homo sapiens omly in Africa then there should be an attendant jump in the sophistication and culture ( elaboate tools) first in africa, marking the intelligence of modern humans
  
• −  Artifiacts recovered from SOME sites show more sophisticated tools then those of contemporary sites at Europe and Asia. Ex: oldest blade tools in Kenya, 240 000 ya ( makers carefully prepared core stones, which were struck to ensure precision and consistency= high level of abstraction and planning). These tools are a taste of intellectual advance in transition from premodern to modern. Ex 2: Klasies River Mouth ( site in sounther africa) = long bifacially worked spear points made on stone blades detatch from cores by punch technique. Punch technique= long blades removed from stone cores by striking a punch, usually made of antlers with hammerstone instead of striking the core directly with a hammerstone. Causes the force of the blow precisely= longer, narrower, thinner flakes of predictable shape and form. This technique is HIGHLY developed in europe but occurs MUCH LATER.Ex 3: Katands, Democratic Republic of Congo ( 3 sites) , 90 000 ya, produced bone tools including barbed harpoon like piercing tools, ridged ends. Premodern homo sapiens are not known to have produced anything at this level of skill.
  

• −  (OUTSIDE OF AFRICA) If the replacement model ( RAO ) is correct, more intelligent moderns should have brought their sophisticated tools with them as they expanded of Africa; these tools should show up along with skeletons of the first modern humans.
  
• −  The artifactual evidence= the toolkits of the early Neanderthals of Europe and Southwest Asia did not look different from that of early moderns of Africa and Southwest Asia ( NOT more complex tools). Ex: artifacts found with modern crania from Skhul and Qafzeh are identical to those associated with Neanderthal crania. Similarites up until 100 000 ya are evident; not until recently in the Upper Paleolithic when Modern humans inhabit Europe do we see far more sophisticated tools of the Aurignacian= the toolmaking tradition of anatomically modern Homo sapiens during the European Upper Paleolithic.
  
• −  Replacement, Mousterian tools with Chatelperronian; both associated with Neanderthals, seen at Saint Cesaire ( site at 36 000 ya) and Arcy- sur- Cure ( site at 34 000). Chatelperonian= more advanced, ( more edge from same core; more finely made long, and precisely sharpened blades
  
• −  Istallako ( site in Hungary) and Bacho Kiro Cave (site of Bulgaria) = both dates at 43 000 ya, El Castillo and L'arbreda sites in spain = 38 000 ya; = Aurignacian tools. Sophistication pattern= Mousterian --> Chatelperronian --> Aurignancian. Possible Evolution Pattern= Mousterian --> Aurignancian--> Chtatelperronian ( indicates contact between Neanderthals and more modern humans regularly, sharing technology, and possibly interbreeding. No hard evidence of either.
  Genetic Evidence
  

• −  Modern humans show little genetic variation, less than seen within ape species.
  
• −  Some chimpanzees DNA exhibits 10 times the amount of variation as does Human variation ( consistent with the RAO) :. If there is little genetic diversity, not much time has elapsed since the species first evolved
  
• −  MRE can also account for this genetic homogeneity= regional genetic differences would become lessened as the species increased its population and improved its ability to move around.
  
• −  Though overall genetic variation is LOW in modern humans, some of our DNA compared across geographic populations show interesting patterns. 3 basic types of DNA 1) Nuclear DNA= noncoding DNA which is apparently selectively neutral ( mutations neither selected for or against), may provide a MORE accurate record of genetic history of 2+ divergent lineages. 2) Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA)= energy source, human cells contain 100 or 1000 mitochondrion, accumulates mutations 5-10 times faster then nuclear DNA
  ( and is fairly contstant rate), genome is known ( base pairs= large encoded sequences), inherited ONLY through female line , both sex cells contain mtDNA but the mtDNA from male cells dissapear after fertilzation ( NOT a combination of parents DNA like Nuclear DNA) 3) Y- chromosome DNA
  ( Analogous to mtDNA), only from father, we can trace inheritance through on
  parental line with little or no influence from the other.
  
• −  With this information we can compare species and populations within a
  species at the most basic genetic level; genetic differences among populations tell us how many mutations have take place since they were a
  

single population= measure of relative evolutionary relationships= family trees. If we can estimate mutation rate of DNA we can turn data into a molecular clock .

• −  These studies tells us that 1) worlds population tend to cluster into 2 groups= subsaharan African and everywhere else. 2) Africa is more genetically diverse than the rest of the world put together. Evidence supports RAO model and a recent African origin in modern humanity. If people have been evolving in africa longer then elsewhere there should be more genetic variation there and there should be some DNA specific to the africans.
  
• −  Opposition= could mean and old, single evolving line; a large population on a large and environmentally diverse continent would be expected to have a great deal of genetic diverity and be different from the rest of humanity. Also, due to the geography of the continents, there may have been more gene flow within africa, then with africa and the rest of the world= genetic distinction.
  
• −  DNA for these studies have used living DNA as it is not a stable molecule and was thought to be impossible to study from ancient remains. However, scientists found a way to recover it from old bones= Neanderthal from 4 specimens= more than 3 times the number of differences between neanderthal and moderns than between any 2 groups of moderns. The sample showed NO similarty to neanderthals and modern europeans; equally distinct to all modern populations. Conclusion was that Neanderthals made NO contribution to modern human mtDNA and that are two lines diverged 690 000- 550 000ya. At Stetten ( site in Germany) dna was extracted from an ancient anatomically modern human was more similar to the DNA of living people than the Neanderthal DNA at the same period. More studies need to be done. MtDNA was extracted from ten skeletons at 60 000-2 000 ya, the oldest skeleton had a mtDNA sequence that differed from the other fossils from other regions and modern peoples as well= anatomically modern individual with old and different DNA lived atht the same time that modern humans lives supporting MRE ancestry. Some studies have show that africa is the most recent common ancestors dated at 171 500 ya =-50 000yrs. Another found two important variants on the Y chromosome shared by other primates and found today ONLY among africans ( Khoisan peoples from Kalahari Desrt area)= RAO model. PROBLEMS= these numbers are not set in stone, mtDNA does not reflect population history; refkects the history of a specific genetic system. The evolutionary history of a population involves the histories of many genes. If there was a recent origin of a separate moden human species than all geentic systems should have similarites; not the case. Genetic evidence= ambiguous. Most of the data supports ROA model.
  Evolutionary Theory
  

− RAO people think that gene flow is unlikely at best, until recent times hominid populations were too thinly spread across the three continents of the old world to be so connected by gene flow, gaps between gropus = too large for genes to move around, too many geographic barriers the flow of genes would have been severely limited by these geographical barriers. OPPOSITION= the think spread of early human populations across the Old World may be due to the nature of the fossil record. Stringer cites that some populations sat still while genes passed through them= exchange between neighbouring groups. Also, there is no reason why once humans got ti certain areas they all chose

to stay put, may have been a great deal of moving ( climate change, resources). SECOND OPPOSITION= Geographic barriers did not prevent the spread of human populations.

• −  Hybradization between Modern and Archaic hominids= there is evidence for ex: portugese child however RAO model suggests that the child is from ONE species, and that even if hybridization was rare and had little impact on human evolution (interbreeding may have taken place in eurasia, no impact human evolutions. PROBLEM = if ANY interbreeding occured then by definitions they were members of the same species. Gene flow between archaic and moderns, no matter how limited REFUTES the RAO model and is basic to the MRE model.
  
• −  Speciation; new species evolve when a portion of an existing species is completely isolated for the parent species long enough that subsequent genetic and phenotypic change eventually creates an absolute barrier to reproduction; humans were a mobile species, thus speciation is unlikely to become a SEPARATE species ( NO RAO). The most extreme of the RAO recognizes as many as 10. In terms of how new species evolve ant the nature of genus Homo, this appears HIGHLY UNLIKELY
  
• −  Central theme = adaptive theme, big brains and resulting behaviours
  ( mainly culture)that those brains make possible, is prevalent of GENUS homo and ABSENT in all other hominids.
  Mostly- Out- of- Africa: An alternative model
  

• −  While MOST of ancestors of modern humans are from Africa, NOT ALL are. Agrees that our species is an old one ( maybe 2 million) and that a network of gene flow maintained that species exist across ALL geographic regions.
  ( MULTIREGIONAL MODEL). For the most part origination from Africa. Greater genetic diversity in Africa and differentiation between African DNA and that of every other regional population ( all other populations are really subsets of the genome of Africans).
  
• −  At least 2 major expansions out of Africa, 1) Erectus times.. 2)the latest would have been the time of origin for homo sapiens. There may have been other expansions NOT outside of Africa. = evolution of at least some features of modern human anatomy, and the genes which coded for them could have occurred first in Africa, their spread around the world would NOT have resulted in the replacement of one species by a new one. Gene flow features are spread among existing populations descended from first and subsequent expansion= Templetons study. Contribution of African genes= disproportionately large, African DNA= most diverse ( Oldest) with the DNA of other populations being a subset of the African genome.
  Point- Counterpoint: The Authors Debate the Debate
  

• −  Different theories strengthen science
  
• −  Feder= Mostly- Out-of- Africa= the RAO model , you must go off factual
  evidence available
  
• −  Park= Fossil and archaeological data are irrelevant since they cannot support
  one model over another. = Mostly- Out- of – Africa theory ( one species as far
  as 2 mya) SPECIATION?! Um no, says park!
  Biological Diversity in Modern Humans
  

• −  Anatomically modern Homo sapiens inhabits a wide geographic range, indigenous populations of our species are found on all the continents BUT Antarctica.
  
• −  Endogamy= marriage restricted to those within the same social group, caused by isolation; even human populations living side may not exchange genes on a regular basis.
  
• −  Polymorphisms= A trait showing variation within a species as a result of genetic variation, or certain clusters of polymorphisms which are characteristic of particular geographic areas due to environments.
  
• −  2 concerns= 1) Nature and extent of the role of Natural selection and other evolutionary processes in producing our variation? 2) Variation is such that we are divisible into identifiable biological races.
  Natural Selection and Human Variation
  

• −  Our big brains has allowed us, via culture to buffer ourselves increasingly against some of the action of natural selection. Traits that used to be disadvantageous in new cultures may be neutral: Medical culture= illness cured, no longer a bad thing.
  
• −  ABO systems, A, B, AB, or O ( same as gorillas and chimps), controlled by a single gene with three alleles. Appear in different frequencies around the world. Ex: A= absent in native S. American groups but in Europe = 50%. Type O = most common. 40 % in Asia, and 100 % in some native south Americans. Particular blood types have greater susceptibility to certain disorders.
  
• −  Skin colour= determined largely by the amount of pigment melanin produced in the lowest layer of the skin and distributed in the upper layers, darker skin= closer to equator. Origin = tropical regions, had dark skin, those that moved away underwent selection for lighter skin pigmentation. It was thought those with darker skin could not manufacture vitamin D for normal bone growth and maintenance. ( Lighter skin= advantageous)
  
• −  Noses = long and narrow in cold or dry areas to help warm and moisten the air taken into the lungs, noses= short and broad where air is already warm and moist.
  
• −  Genetic drift and Gene flow work best in small groups ( the case with humans) ex: Blackfeet Indians high incidence of blood type A = founder effect, originally founded by a small group that by chance was uncharacteristically high in type A. OR in ancestral Blackfeet population, allele frequencies may have drifted toward a high percentage of type A.
  
• −  If natural selection is not actively selecting for or against the frequencies of a set of alleles, than random processes are free to operate. Not all variation is adaptively important all the time, some is not important at all :. Gene flow and genetic drift can have major effects on the distribution of alleles. Ex= degree of variation in inherited features of finger tips among populations and between generations of the Hutterites( religerous group that lives in isolated communities in the wester united states and Canada, result of gene flow, founder effect and gamete sampling.
  
• −  Some phenotypic expressions are due to environment ( skin) some are NOT ( blood)
  The Questions of Human Races
  

• −  On a biological level human subspecies or races DO NOT EXIST. NO scientifically valid way to divide us up below the species level there are 4 areas of CLEAR EVIDENCE. 1) Regional variation has no clear cut boundaries between groups of variants, clines= a geographic continuum in the variation of a specific phenotype. 2) All features are spread out over many populations and areas, ex: dark skin, not solely a trait of africans, it is an equatorial trait, change is gradual NOT ABRUPT. Polymorphisms are incongruent 3) We are a homogenous species genetically: On average 10 million SNP's, and two different people differ by only 3 million SNP's. = On average, two humans are 99% genetically identical. If some catastrophic event happened and only Africans were left 93% of genes would still exist. 4) Endogamy is temporary, Geographic Isolation is temporary and Gene flow is the REAL RULE.
  
• −  Our major adaptive mechanism= culture, distribution of genes coincides with the distribution of langguage. Linguistic differences ( and cultural differences) may reinforce barriers between populations.
  Contemporary Issue: Is there a connection between Modern Human Origins and Race?
  

• −  no profound inherent differences among human groups that would warran differential treatment in social and cultural environments. Skin color is NO preditor of intellectual capacities.
  
• −  Many Anthropologists lean toward the RAO model because of evidence and also because it explains our current homogeneity. If the RAO is correct human races can't exist.
  
• −  Race= based on location if anything, these groups were NEVER socially isolated so gene flow occured enough to maintain a species identity and display gene flow.